By the time we reach the Viking Age dyeing yarns and fabrics had been around for thousands of years, and Iron Age dyers had mastered some sophisticated organic chemistry. From the wealth of archaeological evidence in textile fragments and other finds, we can say that the Viking Age was a colourful period in woollen textiles. I refer to woollen textiles here as plant-based textiles such as flax and hemp linens are extremely rare finds due to their faster and easier decomposition. Before the use of any dyeing methods were applied to wool yarns or fabrics there were a greater range of naturally pigmented fibres, with grey, black, brown and white shades more readily available than in the later middle ages when white breeds of sheep became more popular. With this wider range of naturally occurring wools the Viking Age dyer could produce a wider range of colours depending upon which natural colour was selected for the dyeing process.
In the Viking Era three different dyeing processes were known and were undertaken according to the dye stuffs being used. These processes were:
• Direct dyeing where the dye is extracted from the plant, strained of any vegetable fibres and then the fabric is soaked directly in the extraction, often with the application of heat. This method works for tannins, safflower and lichens, but the colour produced is not very light or wash fast. These are known as fugitive dyes.
• Mordant dyeing where the fabric or yarn is first soaked in a bath of metal salts before being placed in a bath with the dye. In this method, the dye compounds bond with the metal salts within the fabric fibres to produce a colour which lasts longer than in the direct dyeing method. These are known as adjective dyes.
• Vat dyeing where the dyes are first fermented to extract the colour before the fabric is placed in the heated dye bath. In this method, the dye compounds bind to the textile fibres and then oxidise to form a very strong and stable colour. These are known as substantive dyes. Indigo and Tyrian purple are two examples of colours produced in this method.
<h2>Colours</h2>
From both extant textile examples and plant materials found in a dyeing context, there is evidence that reds, oranges, yellows, blues, purples, pinks, greens and browns could be achieved using dyestuffs available.
The dyes used for fabrics and yarns in the Viking Era were very much dependent upon the local availability of dye plants, although there were trade links to the wider world which could offer a greater choice in dyes, the archaeological evidence suggests that the dyes used were localised and there were regional differences in colour usage.
FINLAND
Textile fragments in Finland are most commonly associated with female burials due to the greater preservation of fabric from the increased number of metal objects buried with them as opposed to with male burials. From textile fragments taken from grave sites across southern Finland dating between 800 – 1150 AD, the predominant colours found were blues, reds/oranges, and yellows. Analysis of the samples using high-performance liquid chromatography, amongst other methods shows the majority of the dyes were produced from local plant sources. Blues were produced predominantly from woad or a combination of purple flowers and clubmoss using alum as a mordant. Reds were produced from Northern Bedstraw, Lady’sBedstraw, or fermented tannins mordanted with either fermented Clubmoss or pre-dyed with Birch leaves (known in Finnish as ‘matara’ which sounds like madder) as opposed to being dyed with Dyer’s Madder. Yellows were produced from a variety of local wild plants or Yarrow mixed with wood ash lye.
Other plants including Alder bark, Crowberry, Bog Rosemary, Heather, Rock Tripe, Alder Buckthorn, spring leaves of Silver Birch, and Webcap mushrooms have also been identified through a combination of archaeological experimentation and Finnish folklore as dye sources.
Only a very small percentage of textile fragments analysed showed traces of the more commonly known red and blue dyes of Dyer’s Madder and tropical Indigo, suggesting these were not used in domestic fabric dyeing but were rather trade imports.
References:
Vajanto. K, 2013, Fibre Analysis of Late Iron Age, Early Medieval And Modern Finnish Wools
Bommel. M & Vajanto. K, 2016, Dyes and Dyeing Methods in Late Iron Age Finland
Walton-Rogers. P, 2004, Fibres and Dyes in Norse Textiles
